However, in post-Reformation England, several Protestant groups emerged that rejected the form of church governance the Church of England sought to impose upon the nation. In this article, we will consider three of the prominent ones: the Presbyterians, the Independents (later known as Congregationalists) and the Baptists.
In the years following the Reformation, continental Europe saw Protestantism split into three broad groups: Lutherans, Calvinists and the Radical Reformers (many of whom were Anabaptists).[2] Radical Reformers began to gain a following within England in the sixteenth century, but, due to persecution by Elizabethan Anglicans, many fled to Holland, where the ideas of the Radical Reformation had been more widely received. Following Elizabeth I’s death, many Radical Reformers returned to England in the seventeenth century and began to promote their ideas under the early Stuart monarchs.
The Church of England was the established religion of the nation and maintained an episcopal form of church governance.[3] Its most significant departure from Roman Catholicism was that the king, rather than the pope, was recognised as head of the church. However, Christians, influenced by the Anabaptists and other Radical Reformers, rejected this structure and campaigned for either Presbyterianism[4] or Congregationalism[5]. Rejecting anything within the Church of England that seemed Roman Catholic to them, these men came to be known as Puritans.
The Puritans briefly became the dominant force in England during the Commonwealth (1649-1660) at the close of the English Civil War. Many of Oliver Cromwell’s New Model Army were of independent persuasion and began to exert their influence on the established Church. However, the restoration of the Stuart monarchy saw them become marginalised as the Church of England returned to its Episcopal roots. In 1662, all Church of England ministers who refused to accept the Book of Common Prayer in their congregations were expelled from their positions – an event known as the Great Ejection.
In the wake of the Great Ejection, numerous Presbyterian and Independent congregations began to spring up. Although the two Churches differed on matters of church governance (see footnotes 4 and 5 below), they both held to the principles of the Reformation. Like their counterparts in Scotland, English Presbyterians adopted the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646) as their subordinate standard, second in authority only to the Bible. Independents largely accepted the Westminster Confession but made minor adjustments resulting in their Savoy Declaration of 1658.
Covenant Theology[6] was at the heart of the Westminster Confession of Faith and this helps to explain why both Presbyterians and Independents continued the practice of infant baptism. By baptising babies, it was argued, the church brought children into the covenant community as members through a visible sign. There were, however, other evangelicals who rejected infant baptism. The Baptists, as they became known, believed that only those who had confessed Jesus Christ as Saviour and Lord should be baptized (Acts 2:41), and that baptism should be by full immersion (Acts 8:38; Romans 6:3-5).
Around the time of the Great Ejection, a wave of persecution arose against those who had broken away from the established church. Under Charles II the Church of England returned to many of the practices that the Puritans had rejected, including the Book of Common Prayer. Many Puritans objected to state religion, which was viewed as a threat to the monarchy; consequently, under Charles II many non-conforming congregations were forced to meet in secret to avoid arrest. This unhappy state of affairs continued until 1688, when William of Orange, having defeated James II, the Roman Catholic successor of Charles II, took the throne of England. In the following year a Toleration Act was passed in Parliament guaranteeing greater religious freedom for dissenting Protestant groups.
During the modern era, Protestantism continued to divide into smaller factions. Baptists splintered into a bewildering array of sub-groups. Even so, their influence on the global church has been profound. Today in the USA, Baptists remain a highly influential body. Presbyterians and Congregationalists eventually merged in 1972, establishing the United Reformed Church (URC). This denomination has been significantly influenced by liberal teachings and is also in sharp numerical decline – as are those groups of Presbyterians and Congregationalists who remained outside the URC.
It is difficult to overstate the influence of movements within the church that trace their origins to the Radical Reformation and the Puritan movement. Modern evangelicalism owes these pioneers a great debt. The Reformers’ insistence on a more biblical faith has led to the proliferation of gospel preaching worldwide and brought the message of salvation – through faith alone in Christ alone (Acts 4:10-12) – to countless multitudes.
[1] The term “Protestant” originated in 1529, twelve years after the generally agreed date for the commencement of the Reformation. It derives its name from the protest made at the Diet of Speyer against the Holy Roman Empire’s decision to outlaw Martin Luther and ban his works.
[2] Anabaptists were so called because of their belief in the need for believers to be baptised after their confession of faith in Christ. As these men and women had been baptised as infants by the Catholic Church, they were nicknamed Anabaptists (literally rebaptisers).
[3] Episcopal churches have a centralised form of government, with a clearly defined hierarchy. In the case of the Church of England, it is headed up by the monarch, with the Archbishop of Canterbury recognised as the spiritual leader. Below the archbishop, districts (dioceses) are overseen by bishops, and individual churches are run by parish priests.
[4] Presbyterian churches are autonomous, led by groups of elders (presbyters). Local synods oversee groups of churches and appoint the presbyters to individual congregations. Presbyterianism became the established church in Scotland, but English Presbyterians can rightly be considered nonconformist.
[5] Congregational churches are also autonomous and believe in equality among their ministers. However, in most contexts individual congregations appoint their own ministers. A modified form of Congregationalism, during the English Commonwealth, saw the state appoint ministers to the churches.
[6] Covenant Theology is an organising principle that seeks to understand the Bible’s message through three basic covenants: the covenant of redemption, the covenant of works and the covenant of grace. Under that scheme, God’s people, whether in the Old or New Testament, are viewed as a unified whole, so there is no fundamental distinction between Israel and the church.
